Aims and outcomes of the Quantitative Revolution in geography

Aims and outcomes of the Quantitative Revolution in geography The Quantitative Revolution in geography refers to the era in the 1950s and 60s when the subject adjusted to a more scientific approach seeking objectivity in the testing of hypotheses and theories. A series of statistical and mathematical techniques and abstract models were adopted leading to a radical transformation of spirit and purpose (Burton, 1963, p151) in Anglo-American geography. As a part of this revolution the old ideographic geography based around areal differentiation and regional geography was displaced. Regional geography was heavily criticised for being too specific and incapable of contributing towards effective generalisation. Both Bunge (1962) and Haggett (1965) argued that one can do little with the unique except contemplate its uniqueness. Thus, the aims of the quantitative revolution were to overcome this specificity and establish nomothetic (universal/general) model-based paradigms. However, as this essay will show, the quantitative revolution was itself as nar rowly focussed and blinkered as the regional geography it replaced. Nevertheless, it did provide greater theoretical awareness within the subject meaning that today this awareness no longer hinges on a simple ideographic-nomothetic binary. Instead, interest in the philosophy of realism and a more focussed contextual approach to geography, together with a critique of grand theory and an interest in situated knowledges, has produced a more nuanced understanding of both the powers and limits of theory. The quantitative revolution was formulated around the paradigm of spatial science associated with the philosophy of positivism (the advancement of science through the formal construction of theories and scientific laws). Spatial science involved the presentation of human geography as a key component of social science, which concentrates on the role of space as the fundamental variable influencing both societys organisation and operation and the behaviour of its individual members (Cox, 1976). Berry and Marble (1968) expressed the goal of spatial science as building accurate generalisations with predictive power by precise quantitative description of spatial distributions, spatial structure and organisation, and spatial relationships. The revolution also strongly influenced physical geography involving the widespread adoption of abstract modelling techniques and scientific methodology in order to reaffirm geographys status as a respected scientific discipline. This had a huge impact upon the subject as a whole, leading to David Harvey (1986) coining the famous slogan by our models you shall know us. However, as many geographers such as Chrisholm (1975) have argued, the phrase quantitative revolution is something of a misnomer. This is due to the fact that geography has in reality been quantitative since the nineteenth century and its formal institutionalisation. For example, The Royal Geographic Society as a centre of calculation (Latour, 1987) involving the assimilation of maps, tables, figures and statistics. As Chrisholm argues, the widespread use of formal statistical techniques from the 1950s to the present day therefore represents more of an evolution than a revolution. Similarly, the significance of the 1950s was not the introduction of numbers per se, but the introduction of theory: it was thus much more of a theoretical revolution. It is this theoretical aspect which has been the most enduring legacy. Before the 1950s geography (human especially) was resolutely atheoretical. With the quantitative revolution, however, a flood of theoretical models from other disciplines were imported and applied. From physics came gravity, from economics spatial science and the holy trinity of Von Thunen, Weber and Loschs models, from sociology the Chicago School and from geometry networks and graph theory. These theories, among many others, were thus applied through an innovative set of practises stemming from a distinct set of technical and theoretical competencies. Both physical and human geography thus shifted away from field-based inquiry to technical, desk-bound roles involving analysis from afar. However, just as the strive for positivism, empiricism, exclusivity, autonomy and universality were the keys aims of the quantitative revolution, they all ultimately culminated in its downfall and critique. By the late 1960s and early 1970s these once-compelling arguments began to slip and with them the grip of the revolution. A different kind of world was emerging at this time that was much less innocent and more restless than before. Huge debates were raging concerning issues of poverty, racial equality, war, gender, environment and civil rights that the quantitative revolution seemed both unable and unwilling to address. Quantitative geographers were thus left somewhat flat-footed in terms of their relevance to this debate. As David Harvey (1973; p129) damningly put it there is an ecological problem, an urban problem, an international trade problem, and yet we seem incapable of saying anything of depth or profundity about any of them. The Quantitative Revolution was thus ripe for an overthrow (Harvey, 1973; p129). The theoretical vocabulary, however, persisted, with a shift towards Marxist concepts and a more radical geography. Human geographers thus argued the discipline should be formulated around situated knowledges based on local cultures, customs and specifics. Based upon poststructuralist and post-modern ideologies they argued instead of concentrating on the universal and global, it was important to attend to the play of different interests from different positions and in different voices. They argued for the reinstatement of the social foundations and responsibilities of intellectual inquiry and refusal to separate science from discourse more generally. Consequently, although no doubt many geographers continue to think of themselves as social scientists, many do not, emphasising their role at the heart of the humanities. In either case, however, probably very few count themselves as positivists. This has ultimately culminated in widening of the gap between the physical and human aspects of the discipline. This is largely due to the fact that so much of physical geography remained largely unaffected by, and indifferent to, the arguments forwarded by the humanists and the critique of the Quantitative Revolution at large. Thus, in the modern era, there is no doubting the fact the connections between the disciplines of human geography and physical geography are much more tenuous. From this perspective, the outcome of the Quantitative Revolution can therefore be seen as profound, highlighting the ultimate question in geography. What does the discipline really entail and can the increasingly disparate human and physical elements continue to operate under the same umbrella?

Parisienne Fashion and Impressionism

Impressionist Effect on Parishioner Fashion The saying, â€Å"A woman is a corset is a lie, a falsehood, a fiction; but for us this fiction is better than reality was decorating Art Institute of Chicago walls, supporting the main idea behind Impressionism, which is â€Å"impression†. This art movement originates back to 19th Century France with a group of Parishioner artists.The trend reflects natural elements through person's perspective in an emotional way; therefore the artists, who adopted Impressionism, do not display the reality objectively, but they filter it through their views and come up with their final impression that appears on the painting. Compositions usually underline the intensity of daylight depending of the hour and vivid pigments that are used, rather than the objects in the painting. Impressionist painting was established in sass's against the conservative and repressive rules of Cad ©mime des Beaux- Arts which is French Fine Arts Academy.Artists like Claude Monet, Camille Pissarro, Pierre- Augusta Renoir, Alfred Sisley, Paul Cezanne, Edgar Degas, Berth Morison did a showcase in 1874, outside of Paris and introduced themselves as Impressionists, as well as they introduced the art movement. As they adopted the trend, the painters had a few elements in common such as preferring to work on their paintings in open air; expressing the temporarily and pugnacity of the present were exclusively important to them. L Therefore being in a dynamic and modern society also affected the technique they used which was applying brush prints rapidly.Besides their preference of using open air as their studios, the artists also used modern life elements for inspiration and therefore fleeted on the social scenery of Paris in 19th century that included cafes, balls and hippodromes, as horseradish was one of the important events. 2 Like in every art movement, Impressionism was also affected by that era's conditions; with the Industrial Revolution, conf ection got bigger in the country and fashion and became more eligible for every class.For instance from sass's through the sass's cashmere shawls from India and Iran (back at the time Persia) were coveted and costly signs of respectability. 3 After this change, every economical class started to have their own apparel codes, which made this adjustment a muse for the artist' production process and James Toots's Shop Girl painting is one of them. The tableau illustrates a young woman standing inside of a ribbon shop, holding the door with one hand while facing the audience and holding a wrapped package in the other hand.The women in the store modestly clothed, however as Taoist highlights the women's bust with slimming their waists; he is almost implying to a social circumstance that is women who work were considered morally dubious. Combining the elements of working at a store and oddest clothing shows that these women did not belong to a class that was higher than average. The room i s filled with piles of ribbons, has antique chairs and an inlaid, large table. On the background, a busy Parishioner street scene is showing through the window.The paintings dimensions are 31. 37 in x 25. 62 in and type is oil on canvas. Taoist created the painting between 1883- 1885 using small brush strokes and dull, dry pigments. The angle of the light is not exposing and not overwhelming as it reminds the viewer a calm, sunny afternoon; it is also used to define the form ND suggest plasticity. Therefore the texture appears to be smooth and soft rather than hard and rough. Also, lines are actual however with the softening effect of light/ shadowing balance, the painting does not look contoured.Due to that, the pictorial impression is deep and with 3 dimensioning effect, it suggests pictorial space. 4 Another Taoist painting that is a successful reflection of Impressionism in Parishioner fashion is Portrait of Mademoiselle L. L.. The setting includes a closed area, a room, and a y oung woman posing for the painter. The completion date is 1864 and quinine is oil on canvas with dimensions being 48 x 39 in. This painting depicts a typical above average Parishioner young woman who seems independent and confident.Taoist maintained this look with softly- rendered pompom Jacket, which is vogue for Spanish fashions set by Empress Genuine as well as uniforms of French Suave soldiers. Penthouse the clothing seems modest; the bright red that is standing out in pastel pigments is courageous enough for the model to have as a jacket. The light and lines help the viewer to see the depth of the painting and even he mirror supports that feeling; therefore according to the audience, the pictorial space is great.Like a typical Impressionist painting, this one also has quality of the surface that is revealed by light is soft and smooth. 5 As James Taoist being only one of the representatives of Impressionist art trend, there has been many others like Eduardo Monet, Gustavo Court ed and Edgar Degas. These artists were all inspired by the social scene and therefore chose to focus on clothing, which were symbolic to to class levels, while expressing their understanding of their time.Penthouse the themes usually include open air, as it can be seen in these two examples of art work, it is easy to find paintings that have closed environments as their settings; and it is impressive how the depth feeling is never lowering because of this element. Also, it is unique and interesting how these artists were able to reflect on class levels and social statuses by highlighting the clothing of individuals in their paintings. But then again, it seems inevitable to not have fashion as a part of the context in art in a city which has â€Å"There are two ways to be Parishioner; by birth or by dress† as its motto.

The Relationship Between Structure Mentoring Programs

The issue of new graduate nurse retention remains a challenge in many healthcare facilities. More than 50% of new graduate nurses leave their first employment in less than a year (North, Johnson, Knotts & Whelan 2006). Because new recruits are often faced with a variety of stressors in their beginning practice it is clear that a structured mentoring program could be of immense value. Such a program would provide technical and emotional support to nurses and so ease their transition into the unit culture. This article provides a critical review of the literature on mentoring, especially the impact that structured mentoring programs have on the retention rates of new graduate nurses. In the first section I will explore the nature of mentorship within the nursing discipline. I will discuss the functions of a formal mentoring program and the chief characteristics of the mentor: mentee relationship. In the second section I will provide a critical review of the literature concerning the relationship between mentoring programs and increased nurse retention rates. The third section explores common pitfalls that subsume in a dysfunctional mentoring program. Finally recommendations to organisations are proposed based on the review findings. Introduction Graduating from a nursing school is a considerable achievement. New graduates eagerly anticipate their first position in the ‘real world’. The issue however of new graduate nurse retention continues to be a grave concern in many healthcare facilities. It was reported that more than 50% of new graduate nurses leave their first employment in less than a year (North, Johnson, Knotts & Whelan 2006). New recruits are often faced with a variety of stressors associated with beginning practice. It is clear therefore, that a structured mentoring program which provides technical and emotional support to new nurses may be one of the best retention strategies for nurse administrators. This article provides a critical review of the literature on mentoring, with an emphasis on the impact that structured mentoring programs have on nursing retention rates. The first section sets up mentoring concepts and processes as identified in the literature. The second section will provide a critical eview of the literature on the relationship between structured mentoring programs and the nursing retention rate. The third section explores common pitfalls that subsume in a dysfunctional mentoring program. The final section makes recommendations to organisations regarding a successful mentoring program. Significance New nurse graduates have many employment options. They can choose not to work in settings where they are not supported and often they take that option. Common themes emerging from the literature show that many new nurses lack both confidence and a sense of competence (Oermann & Garvin 2002). They are afraid of making mistakes; they complain of an unsupportive environment; and of being obliged to work with ‘difficult’ colleagues (Oermann & Garvin 2002). A lack of recognition of their work as well as difficult shift-work schedules have also been identified as sources of distress (McVicar 2003). It is a sad fact that one out of every three nurses under 30 years plans to leave during his or her first year of employment (Nelson, Godfrey & Purdy 2004). The cost of such high levels of unnecessary nurse turnover is significant (Halfer, Graf & Sullivan 2008). More significantly the resulting deficit of nursing personnel inevitably affects the quality of patient care in hospitals and can compromise patient safety (Leners, Wilson, Connor & Fenton 2006). In response to the critical issue of nursing retention, hospital managements have been urged to address the issue by developing a more congenial work environment. However, it is noticeable that mentoring initiatives are still not integrated into many healthcare organisations, despite a plethora of literature relating this with positive outcomes. Literature search Relevant studies were identified by searching the following electronic databases: Cumulative Index to Nursing and Allied Health Literature, Ovid and ProQuest. The keywords or their combinations have been utilised in the searching process. These include: mentorship, preceptorship, new graduate nurses, personnel retention, and personnel recruitment. Other literature was identified through searching the bibliographies of studies found through electronic searches, including the World Wide Web, Google Scholar and library data systems. Inclusion criteria included discussion/ opinion papers and articles/materials written in English. There were no particular discipline restrictions and there were also no specific date restrictions. Articles that were published after 1999 were sought. The retrieved articles were reviewed and selected based on these criteria: the relationship between formal mentoring programs and personnel retention; benefits of mentoring; new graduate transition; and possible pitfalls of mentoring. Literature review What is mentoring? There is a substantial body of literature which deals with mentoring and preceptoring as discrete functions (Block, Claffey, Korow & McCaffrey 2005; Kelly 1994). To date however, the two terms continue to be used interchangeably or synonymously (Block et al. 2005). It is useful to draw some distinctions between them. Preceptorship is understood as an organised orientation program in which the nurse preceptor facilitates the integration of new staff into role responsibilities in the clinical setting for a limited period of time (Greene & Puetzer 2002). This relationship is often viewed as one-sided and patriarchal (Leners et al. 006). In contrast, mentorship is a reciprocal relationship established between two nurses â€Å"on the basis of respect and compatible personality with the common goal of guiding the nurse toward personal and professional growth† (Block et al. 2005:134). The relationship often occurs over a much longer period, depending on whether the agreed-upon goals have been achieved (Andrews & Wallis 1999). Stated simply, the features of mentorship as distinct from other supporting roles in clinical settings include a strong repertoire of helper functions, reciprocal sharing and a relatively longer duration (Morton-Cooper & Palmer 2000). Characteristics of the relationship Mentorship primarily involves a mentor and a mentee in a one-to-one relationship (Latham, Hogan & Ringl 2008). This relationship is characterised by a process of enabling, cultivating, and empowering a less experienced practitioner within the work environment (Morton-Cooper & Palmer 2000). In this longitudinal relationship, both mentors and mentees assume their own responsibilities and obligations in achieving either organisational or personal goals (Latham et al. 2008). In this relationship, a mentor is recognised as a wiser and more experienced practitioner, who possesses certain ‘personal’ and ‘professional’ attributes such as good interpersonal skills, self-confidence, flexibility, knowledge, and an interest in professional growth (Kane-Urrabazo 2006:193; Andrews & Wallis 1999:204; Morton-Cooper & Palmer 2000). Personal attributes that have been identified as important factors to success also include good listening skills, the ability to facilitate learning and being comfortable in giving feedback (Sherrod, Roberts & Little 2008; Woodrow 1994). The literature refers to the nurse being mentored as a ‘mentee’, ‘protege’, ‘learner’, or ‘mentoree’ (Zucker, Coss, Williams, Bloodworth, Lynn, Denker & Gibbs 2006; Hunter 2002). Referred to here simply as â€Å"the mentee† she or he can be any nurse at a distinctive stage of his/her profession (Leners et al. 2006). The characteristics of a mentee that allow a functional mentorship to flourish include honesty; the capacity to take responsibility; being ready and available for feedback; following through on decisions, having a strong self-identity and a willingness to learn (Wagner & Seymour 2007; Sherrod et al. 008). Structured mentoring program Various structures of formal mentoring programs are available across institutions (Latham et al. 2008). Broadly speaking, the structure of a mentoring program contains several stages of strategic planning (Latham et al. 2008). Initially the focus is on: establishing objectives and measurable outcomes, role delineation for mentors and mentees, establishment of criteria for involvement in mentorship and the construction of a supportive system and a surveillance system of the mentor-mentee team (Latham et al. 2008). Those parties who are involved in this formal relationship are required to fulfil pre-determined aims, objectives and outcomes as identified by their respective supporting organisations (McCloughen, O'Brien & Jackson 2006). The second stage in which the program is implemented involves the selection of suitable mentors, the recruitment of mentees, (on both a voluntary or involuntary basis) and mentor preparation (Latham et al. 2008). Final stages include an evaluation through reflection and feedback by mentors and mentees, to determine whether specific objectives and measurable outcomes have been achieved (Latham et al. 008). The program duration may last one year or even longer (Morton-Cooper & Palmer 2000). Structured mentoring programs and retention success In this session, several issues regarding structured mentoring program and retention success will be addressed. First, we must ask what mentoring functions are important to retention success? Second: to what extent or in what way does mentoring contribute to the retention of new graduate nurses? Each of these questions is considered in the following section. Benefits of mentoring programs Mentoring has been shown to provide a beneficial effect on a proteges’ job satisfaction levels and willingness to remain in an organisation (Fleig-Palmer 2009). One aspect of the mentoring relationship is the passing of knowledge from a more experienced staff (mentor) to a less experienced staff (protege) (Heartfield, Gibson, Chesterman & Tagg 2005). Research suggests that by the absorption via socialisation of specific skills to proteges is positively related to personal learning in the workplace (Sherrod et al. 2008). This component is akin to preceptorship which also includes skill-development (Sherrod et al. 2008) and is widely accepted as a crucial orientation to new graduate nurses. Literature has linked preceptorship to a high level of satisfaction together with successful retention (Almada, Carafoli, Flattery, French & McNamara 2004; Lee, Tzeng, Lin and Yeh 2009). Anecdotal evidence shows that new graduates after completing the preceptorship program tend to seek more support, a fact which in itself would imply a strong need for good mentoring programs. A second aspect of the mentoring relationship is the psycho-social support the mentor may provide to a mentee: support which enhances his or her sense of competence and confidence (Heartfield et al. 2005). Recent findings from a longitudinal study suggest that mentoring fosters organisational retention rates through the establishment of emotional connections between mentor and mentee, by contributing to higher level of commitment to the organisation (Beecroft, Dorey & Wenten 2007). A substantial body of literature also supports the notion that mentorship initiatives can help new recruits transiting into the unit culture (Leners et al. 006). Positive environments can be created through frequent interaction, communication and relational caring between different generations of co-workers (Latham et al. 2008). Such interactions can help new nurses transcend the generations, norms and values differences in a unit (Latham et al. 2008). It also can aid a new recruit in getting in touch with overt or covert culture within the practice environment (Morrow 2008). Ultimately, better patient outcomes can be achieved, which in turn can increase nurses’ satisfaction (Leners et al. 2006). Many studies show that individuals who were mentored report higher levels of job satisfaction (Halfer et al. 2008; Krugman, Bretschneider, Horn, Krsek, Moutafis & Smith 2006; Faron & Poeltler 2007). An abundance of research studies indicates that organisations who implement mentoring programs show a consistent decrease in turn-over rate of new nurses (Hurst & Koplin-Baucum 2003; Greene & Puetzer 2002; Halfer & Graf 2006; Halfer et al. 2008; Zucker et al. 2006; Persaud 2008). Similar results are also evident in other disciplines such as Medicine, Pharmacy and Academia (Cohn, Bethancourt & Simington 2009; Sambunjak, Straus & Marusic 2006). One report in particular highlights the benefits of mentoring. A study from the southern United States by Zucker and co-workers (2006) was done to determine the impact of an 18-month mentoring program on nurse retention in five hospitals. Prior to commencement of the program, participants completed a personality profile, to ensure successful pairing (Zucker et al. 2006). This program included topics such as communication and conflict resolution skills, co-operative learning and time-management (Zuker et al. 006)– all subjects which are normally not covered in conventional orientation programs. At the end of the program, both parties reported that the mentoring relationship increased their knowledge and helped them become ‘better people’ and ‘better colleagues’ (Zucker et al. 2006). Higher levels of protege satisfaction were directly translated into increased retention. In this case, the increase was 16% (Zucker et al. 2006). Given that the high turnover rate of new recruits, mentoring program yield a significance of cost-saving to healthcare system. Research methodology/measurement issues Admittedly, strict evidence for an improved retention rate is hampered by the small sample size of these programs (Hamilton, Murray, Lindholm & Myers 1989; Faron & Poelter 2007). Atkin and William (1995) argue that findings which result from such small purposive studies cannot be generalised. Despite numerous studies therefore which show that retention rates increase with the application of a mentorship program (Block et al. 2005), it is still difficult to draw a firm conclusion on the direct causal relationship between mentoring programs and the attained retention level. This is due to the limited amount of information provided with respect to evaluation tools, sample size, mentor styles as well as the lack of a comparison group in the available studies (Gagliardi, Perrier, Webster, Leslie, Bell, Levinson, Rotstein, Tourangeau, Morrison, Silver & Straus 2009; Greene & Puetzer 2002; Hurst & Koplin-Baucum 2003). In addition, the outcomes of these studies may be affected by: differences that exist in a mentor-mentee relationship; the program’s aim and function; and the frequency of interaction between mentor and mentee (Jacobi 1991; Beecroft et al. 2007). Lack of strong quantitative data may prevent the establishment of a positive colleration between mentoring programs and retention rates. Furthermore it can be argued that retention strategies such as mentorship (which are deemed appropriate in one hospital) may not work in another (Jacobi 1991). Atkin and William (1995) point out that the findings might only show that mentors and mentees’ experience during mentorship was relatively new to them. In spite of all critiques, no one however has doubted the overall value that mentoring programs have for mentees, mentors as well as for organisations (Block et al. 2005). The existing mentoring studies on nursing which are linked to retention rates include cross-sectional and longitudinal components (Halfer et al. 2008). In contrast, empirical studies with correlational design, contain data which are only collected for a single point of the study and are subject to a limited amount of participants (Caine 1989; Fagan & Fagan 1982). Quasi-experimental design is therefore recommended (Jacobi 1991). In such studies data is collected from a group of participants who receive mentoring programs together with another non-receiving group, at multiple points throughout the study (Jacobi 1991). Until today, it is not known how long the mentorship effect takes to emerge, in this instance, nor how long it will last (Jacobi 1991). Pure experimental research has value in determining the relationship between mentoring and retention of new graduates (Jacobi 1991) but not many current studies can afford to adopt such a strict approach to measuring the cause and effect of mentoring programs and retention rates. Pitfalls of a structured mentoring program Despite numerous of benefits gained from a mentoring relationship, the desired outcome such as retention not always achieved. Several types of problems that might occur in mentoring include:- Selection of mentors A number of authors note that inequity in the selection of mentors can be problematic to the success of a mentoring program (Greene & Puetzer 2002; Andrews & Wallis 1999). Andrews and Wallis (1999:206) state that ‘some of the nurses are not mentors by choice’, as they dare not reject their selection by the nursing manager. The mentor selection criteria have not been made clear and explicit (Andrews & Wallis 1999). Sometimes, an experienced staff nurse does not have the attributes to become a good mentor (Greene & Puetzer 2002). Indeed, selection of the mentor should be subject not to seniority but to the mentor’s â€Å"availability, interpersonal skills, clinical knowledge, and teaching experience† (Greene & Puetzer 2002:69). An optional basis may also be used (Atkin & William 1995). An inadequate mentor who lacks strong values, or good personal and professional attributes and who exhibits unwarranted behaviours can be a liability (Kane-Urrabazo 2006). Such behaviours can include negative feedback or a lack of respect towards the mentee and can result in decreased self-esteem in the new recruit (Kane-Urrabazo 2006; Woodrow 1994). These behaviours are also known as ‘joy stealing’ (Heinrich 2007, cited in Driscoll 2009:8). The consequence of this will be frustration for either or both mentor and mentee (Kane-Urrabazo 2006). Poor mentoring can drive the newly employed staff away (Kane-Urrabazo 2006; Woodrow 1994). It is therefore imperative that a formalised selection criteria for mentors should be identified. Compatibility Many proteges complain of being enmeshed in a dysfunctional relationship with their mentor (Feldman 1999). This is likely to occur if there is ‘forced matching’ when a less experienced nurse is assigned to be with a mentor pre-selected from experienced staff nurses (Morton-Cooper & Palmer 2000:46). Given the closed relationship between mentor and mentee, there is a risk of this relationship becoming destructive (Woodrow 1994). Empirical studies have identified this issue (Fenske 1986). Common themes that emerge are: failure of the mentor or mentee to maintain confidentiality of private information, mentee abuse of the relationship in which the mentor’s resources are exploited for personal advantage, mentor abuse of the enthusiasm and goodwill of the mentee by making use of his/her as a personal helper or assistant (Hunter 2002). Eventually varying degrees of injurious consequences to mentor, mentee and organisation can develop if not properly monitored (Feldman 1999). The literature has identified that mentees would have better opportunities for growth if mentees were able to select the mentors (Woodrow 1994). Opposition to this suggests that matching is not as important as meeting regularly for a successful mentoring relationship (Beecroft, Santner, Lacy, Kunzman & Dorey 2006). Training for mentors Undoubtedly, a mentor is the key person in the success of a mentoring relationship. However, several studies have shown that most mentors feel deficient in their role as mentor because their training consisted of learning â€Å"on the job†, and by â€Å"watching how other people do it† (Andrews & Wallis 1999:205-206). There are some institutions providing formal mentor training to guide the mentor along (Hurst & Koplin-Baucum 2003). An evaluation study done by Jinks and Williams in 1994 (cited in Andrews & Wallis 1999:205) found those who undertake a formal course with exams felt significantly more able to undertake the role. A formal mentoring course commonly would examine the phases in mentorship, recognising different adult learning styles and personality traits, provide techniques in dealing with conflict and effectively help to manage the relationship with the mentee (Hurst & Koplin-Baucum 2003; Block et al. 00. In spite of these improvements, the majority of the course content was still perceived as inadequate by mentors’ (Andrews & Wallis 1999). Additionally, those who had left school for a significant period of time, might feel the lack of a theoretical background leading to doubts as to whether they possess sufficient preparation to be a mentor (Andrews & Wallis 1999). Woodrow (1994:813) argues that the ideal of mentorship might be undermined by ‘token mentorship’, in which mentors are unable to perform true mentor functions. Recommendation It is important for hospital managers who prepare and support nurses as mentors to develop a greater understanding of mentoring from the mentor’s perspective (Atkin & Williams 1995). Andrews and Wallis (1999:206) argue that mentors’ gain invaluable skills and satisfaction from their work but this often tends to be â€Å"intrinsic† and is internalised. Several authors believe that administrative support through financial compensation, staffing and schedule flexibility, title and leadership recognition can act as motivators for experienced staff (Greene & Puetzer 2002). Such measures would make mentors more likely to commit and sustain in this longitudinal relationship (Greene & Puetzer 2002). In addition, on-going mentor support through a mentor-support group may be helpful in maintaining the momentum (Latham et al. 2008). Latham et al. (2008) had further examined a university-hospital partnership mentoring program. The program included a component of mentor support as part of the program follow-up. It offered an opportunity for mentors to vent about the difficulties they were facing, and share the successful experiences in the mentorship. A mentor support group can clearly help management to monitor the mentorship progress and develop a strategy to tackle emerging problems (Latham et al. 2008). Conclusion It is important that healthcare organisations not continue to take the nurse retention issue lightly. The provision of an effective mentoring program structure is the appropriate response. This is essential in helping clinical entry nurses make a smooth transition into the working environment and at the same time benefit experienced nurses to achieve a higher level of professional development. Such a program can also help the organisation transcend a multitude of problems by creating a positive environment where every staff member may enjoy working. In order for an effective mentoring program to be carried out, organisations must: allocate sufficiently experienced staff to act as mentors; provide flexible staffing and scheduling; give quality training to mentors; and support the mentors through various means by title recognition, wage adjustment and support groups. In turn the program can help organisations increase retention and reduce turn-over for nurses, particularly new graduate staff. It can thus achieve better patient outcomes and increase nurse’s job satisfaction. By providing a structured mentoring program for new nurses’ career development and advancement, we can help to improve the longevity of active nursing careers and also help to alleviate the problem of current nurses’ retention.

A Comparison and Contrast of Love in Christopher Marlowes The Passionate Shepherd to his Love and C. Day Lewiss Song

A Comparison and Contrast of Love in Christopher Marlowes The Passionate Shepherd to his Love and C. Day Lewiss Song In the poems 'The Passionate Shepherd to his Love' by Christopher Marlowe and 'Song' by C. Day Lewis, the speakers display their individual views of what can be expected with their love. Both speakers produce invitations to love with differences in what they have to offer. A list of promised delights is offered by the speaker in 'The Passionate Shepherd,' and through persuasion, is able to influence the emotions of his love. The speaker in 'Song' shows the difficulties of his life, as seen in his economic necessity and lack of material pleasures, but subsequently offers his love unconditionally in order to convince his beloved. In comparison the poems expose the speakers' use of separate methods to influence their loves. Through comparing and contrasting the context in which the invitations occur, what each speaker offers, and the tone of each speaker, these differing methods can be understood.David Devo OosthuizenThe 'Passionate Shepherd' is set in a romantic, natural backdrop in th e seventeenth century. In this rural setting the Shepherd displays his flock and pastures to his love while promising her garlands and wool for weaving. Many material goods are offered by the speaker to the woman he loves in hopes of receiving her love in return. He also utilizes the power of speech to attempt to gain the will of his love. In contrast, the poem 'Song' is set in what is indicative of a twentieth century depression, with an urban backdrop that is characteristically unromantic. The speaker 'handle(s) dainties on the docks' (5) , showing that his work likely consists of moving crates as a dock worker. He extends his affection through the emphasis of his love and how it has endured and survived all hardships. He uses the truth of his poor and difficult situation as a...

Functional Areas of a Business

Functional Areas of a Business Introduction Managers play a significant role towards supporting the performance of their organizations. They make businesses successful through continued management and allocation of organizational resources. They undertake every managerial practice in their organizations to achieve the targeted objectives.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Functional Areas of a Business specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More According to Robbins and Coulter (2012, p. 64), â€Å"managers oversee and coordinate the activities of their employees in order to accomplish the targeted organizational goals†. Managers should always be ready to address the challenges and problems affecting their companies. Managers have many duties and roles depending on the nature and goals of their organizations. This paper analyzes the roles of a manager within every functional area of an organization. The Role of a Manager within the Functional Areas of a Business Managers have a role to play in every functional area of their respective businesses. Such roles are critical towards realizing every business goal. One of these functional areas is the Human Resource (HR). The HR department â€Å"handles different activities such as hiring employees, firing workers, and ensuring every person follows the company’s policies† (Feldman Khademian, 2007, p. 308). Managers should provide the best leadership and administrative concepts to their HR departments. They should also support and mentor every HR manager. Managers also use this functional area to â€Å"take the best disciplinary measures and offer compensations for different activities† (Kraut, Pedigo, McKenna, and Dunnette, 2005, p. 124). Business managers present the best leadership practices in their organizations. Leadership is a critical aspect because it makes every employee successful. Managers use â€Å"various theoretical concepts to deal with the conflicts and challenges encountered by their employees† (Kraut et al., 2005, p. 125). Managers should also be ready to train and mentor their employees. Some â€Å"managers will hire, train, and support new employees in order to remain productive† (Robbins Coulter, 2012, p. 64). Such roles are critical towards the performance of every HR department.Advertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Accounting is another relevant functional area in an organization. This â€Å"functional area deals with the auditing, monitoring, and maintenance of every financial aspect of an organization† (Robbins Coulter, 2012, p. 83). Some companies formulate new accounting units in order to achieve their goals. Such units â€Å"include managerial and financial accounting departments† (Feldman Khademian, 2007, p. 312). Financial accounting â€Å"focuses on the examination and creation of financial documents such balance sheets and income statements† (Kraut et al., 2005, p. 125). Managers should always examine income statement and balance sheet before making the best business decisions. Managers also monitor the roles and goals of every accountant. Managers use the best leadership practices in order to empower their employees. Managers should also make appropriate budgetary allocations for future expenditures and projects. Such roles will be critical towards improving the level of business performance. Managers should also use the best strategies to finance the functions of their organizations. Another â€Å"important functional area in many businesses is economics† (Feldman Khademian, 2007, p. 319). This functional area supports the best activities in order to support the organization’s performance. Some of the activities include â€Å"distribution, production, consumption, and marketing of services and products† (Feldman Kh ademian, 2007, p. 319). This functional area is relevant because it transforms raw materials into marketable products. This department also studies the distribution of services and products within different firms. Managers have a huge role to play in this functional area. Managers should analyze the changing market trends in order to maximize products. Economics is also an important functional area because it helps managers identify new markets and partnerships (Kraut et al., 2005). Managers should also merge different functional areas in order to make the best business decisions. The approach will make their businesses profitable. Managers should mentor every employee within this functional area. The practice will be necessary towards improving the level of business performance and profitability.Advertising We will write a custom essay sample on Functional Areas of a Business specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Research and Statistics (RS) is another important functional area in many firms. This department collects and interprets in order to make the best investment decisions. Managers â€Å"should use these data to make appropriate marketing, production, and promotional decisions† (Feldman Khademian, 2007, p. 319). Managers should liaise with individuals in the department to understand the current and future business expectations. Business leaders and managers use such information to support the best organizational practices. Managers should â€Å"identify the practices that can support or modify in their businesses’ future practices† (Feldman Khademian, 2007, p. 319). Such managerial practices will play a critical role towards the performance of the targeted firm. Operations Management (OM) is a necessary function in every successful organization. This department uses statistical tools to interpret every organizational data. Managers should use such interpretations to examine the performa nce of their firms. Such practices will guide these managers throughout their decision-making processes. This functional area determines the performance of every department in an organization. Managers should encourage every employee in this department. Business organizations cannot achieve their profits without managing their marketing units in a proper manner. These functional areas focus on the needs and expectations of every targeted customer. This department uses the best marketing and promotional strategies to attract more consumers. The main goal of this department is â€Å"to ensure every consumer is happy† (Robbins Coulter, 2012, p. 74). The functional area should always work hard to address the needs of its consumers. Managers â€Å"should empower their marketing managers and coordinators to embrace the best business practices† (Kraut et al., 2005, p. 128). Managers can obtain useful data from this department in order to make the best marketing decisions.Adv ertising Looking for essay on business economics? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Managers have a duty to mentor, train, and support their marketers. Such practices will ensure every organization addresses the changing expectations its consumers. Managers can use the collected information to create strong brands. Strategic planning determines the success of a business firm. This functional area deals with the plans and activities that support the goals of an organization. Managers should â€Å"use their implementation and strategic planning departments to initiate new organizational policies† (Kraut et al., 2005, p. 124). Managers should also use their skills to bring different departments together. This practice will increase the level of participation and interaction. The approach plays a major towards making every firm successful. Managers have always used strategic planning and operations management (OM) to support the functions of their respective firms. Conclusion The above discussion explains how every manager plays a critical role towards the succe ss of his or her organization. Managers should motivate their employees in every functional area. This discussion also explains why â€Å"companies should establish different functional areas depending on their size, goals, and available resources† (Robbins Coulter, 2012, p. 103). The success of many every firm depends on the commitment and performance of its manager. Organizations require a dedicated manager in order to support the activities of every functional area. Reference List Feldman, M., Khademian, A. (2007). The Role of the Public Manager in Inclusion: Creating Communities of Participation. Governance: An International Journal of Policy, Administration, and Institutions, 20(2), 305-324. Kraut, A., Pedigo, P., McKenna, D., Dunnette, M. (2005). The role of the manager: What’s really important in different management jobs. Academy of Management Executive, 19(4), 122-129. Robbins, S., Coulter, M. (2012). Management. Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education I nc.

AIG accounting scandal (2005) - Income Statement report Essay

AIG accounting scandal (2005) - Income Statement report - Essay Example hese scandals, postmortem results indicate presence of a creative accounting process, a phenomenon characterized by complex methods of funds redirecting and misuse as well as overstated revenues and improper reporting of expenses and liabilities. According to Roddy (2011, pp 34), the most significant scandal of the last decade involved Tyco, HealthSouth, Enron, WorldCom, and AIG among others. This paper aims at exploring the accounting scandal that affected American Insurance Group in 2005. American Insurance Group (AIG) is a multinational insurance corporation. It is regarded as the World’s largest insurance company with over 90,000 workers and offices in over 130 countries. The company is also involved in other forms of business including aircraft leasing and assets management in many parts of the world. During this time of the scandal, the company was led by Maurice Greenburg, the long-time serving leader, having led the company since 1968. He was named as the person involved in the scandal, and eventually pressured to step down in 2005. The company came under scrutiny first in 2001 after it was realized that a client company had been assisted to strengthen their balance sheet fraudulently. Investigations were started and in 2003, a penalty of $10 Million was passed by SEC to settle the issue. The company’s income smoothing products were investigated in 2004 and a bid rigging complaint filed. Kay (2005) wrote that the company admitted to having conducted improper accounting exercises. When the company finally released the 2004 annual earnings, it was discovered that re-insurance deals with GenRe were not accounted for in the deposits. A restatement of this resulted to a decrease in the earnings by $1.32 Billion. According to Martin and Wesley (2005), several lawsuits were filed against AIG starting with one by the Attorney General concerning misleading accounting which Greenberg dismissed as political war. Others were filed by the federal agency leading to

Difficulties Canadians Face if they do not Have a Perfect Command of Essay

Difficulties Canadians Face if they do not Have a Perfect Command of the English Language - Essay Example A major difficulty of people in Canada who do not have a good command of English is in terms of education. Most schools in Canada use English as the medium of instruction. If one does not speak, read or write English, how can one be educated in these schools? A good education is a prerequisite for a good job in the future; thus, it is important that one learns the English language to be able to be enrolled in the Canadian schools. Seeking employment will also be difficult for residents in Canada who are not fluent in English. With the onset of globalization, most employers would require knowledge of the English language among their employees. If there were two applicants for a job and one knows English while the other does not have a command of the language, most likely, the latter will not be taken in. Having a perfect command of the English language is always a plus factor in landing a job. Canadians who do not speak English are sometimes discriminated. Their personal and civic ide ntity is threatened because they are being judged according to the language they speak. (Churchill 28). This is another difficulty which the non-English speaking residents of Canada face. ... This resulted in the low productivity and morale of the factory workers. This problem has its corresponding effect on the Canadian economy and society (Abacus 1). A possible solution to the language problem is to revise the Canadian immigration point system, making language skills a priority (Abacus 1). It does not benefit Canada to accept doctors or other professionals if they do not have a functional knowledge of either French or English. In addition, a mandatory language testing may be given to immigrants after six months of stay in the country and the finalization of their immigrant status will depend partly on the results of the test (Abacus 1). Another recommendation to lessen the difficulties of Canadians with the English language is for the government to offer free English language training courses which are accessible. The government can set up these classes in community centers. It is advisable that these classes be set up in communities where there are a large number of no n-English speaking immigrants, as well as in communities where there are a lot of Canadian residents who cannot speak the language. The question though is whether the government will be willing to allocate funds for these classes especially for the immigrants who should not be a burden to the Canadian government. If the government cannot fund the English classes, then the private sector may choose to establish these classes and make them affordable. These may be done by companies through training programs for their non-English speaking employees. This can be viewed by these corporations as an investment in human resources because in the long-run, their company will also benefit from having English speaking employees. Another suggestion to people having difficulty communicating